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Psychologists—as well as scientists in other disciplines—meet the challenge of pos- ing appropriate questions and properly answering them by relying on the scientific method. As illustrated in Figure 1, it consists of four main steps: 1 identifying ques- cally acquire knowledge and under- tions of interest, 2 formulating an explanation, 3 carrying out research designed to standing about behavior and other support or refute the explanation, and 4 communicating the findings.
Module 4. Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations In using the scientific method, psychologists start by identifying questions of interest. We have all been curious at some time about our observations of everyday behavior.
If you have ever asked yourself why a particular teacher is so easily annoyed, why a friend is always late for appointments, or how your dog understands your commands, you have been formulating questions about behavior. What do you think are the advan- Curiosity, creativity, insight tages of this method?
Carry out research Devise an operational definition of the hypothesis. Communicate the findings Select a research method Study Alert Use Figure 1 to remember the Collect the data four steps of the scientific method identifying questions, formulating an explanation, Analyze the data carrying out research, and communicating the findings.
Psychologists, too, ask questions about the nature and causes of behavior. They may want to explore explanations for everyday behaviors or for various phenomena. They may also pose questions that build on findings from their previous research or from research carried out by other psychologists. Or they may produce new questions that are based on curiosity, creativity, or insight. After a question has been identified, the next step in the scientific method is to develop a theory to explain the observed phenomenon.
Growing out of the diverse approaches employed by psychologists, theories vary both in their breadth and in their level of detail. For example, one theory might seek to explain and predict a phenomenon as broad as emotional experience. According to their theory, the greater the number of bystanders or witnesses to an event that calls for helping behavior, the more the responsibility for helping is perceived to be shared by all the bystanders.
Thus, the greater the number of bystanders in an emergency situ- ation, the smaller the share of the responsibility each person feels—and the less likely that any single person will come forward to help. Their next step was to devise a way to test their theory.
To do this, they needed to create a hypoth- esis. A hypothesis is a prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested. Module 4 also construct hypotheses about events and behavior. Those hypotheses can range from trivialities such as why our English instructor wears those weird shirts to more mean- ingful matters such as what is the best way to study for a test. Although we rarely test these hypotheses systematically, we do try to determine whether they are right.
Perhaps we try comparing two strategies: cramming the night before an exam versus spreading out our study over several nights. By assessing which approach yields better test performance, we have created a way to compare the two strategies. A hypothesis must be restated in a way that will allow it to be tested, which involves creating an operational definition. They could, of course, have chosen another hypothesis try to think of one! Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses for many reasons.
For one thing, theories and hypotheses allow them to make sense of unorganized, separate observations and bits of data. They permit them to place observations and data within a coherent framework. In short, the scientific method, with its emphasis on theories and hypotheses, helps psychologists pose appropriate questions. With properly stated questions in hand, psy- chologists then can choose from a variety of research methods to find answers.
RECAP 2. She decides that use to understand behavior. It consists of four steps: she will measure aggression by counting the number of identifying questions of interest, formulating an times a participant will hit a punching bag.
Answers to Evaluate Questions 1. It provides the key to understanding the degree to which hypotheses and the theories behind them are accurate. All establish cause-and-effect rela- of us carry out elementary forms of research on our own. For instance, a supervisor tionships in research studies?
Each of these situations draws on the research practices we are about to discuss. These methods include archival research, naturalistic observation, survey research, and case studies.
One of the first places you might turn to would be historical accounts. By search- ing newspaper records, for example, you might find support for the notion that a decrease in helping behavior historically has accompanied an increase in the number of bystanders.
Using newspaper articles is an example of archival research. For example, college transcripts may be used college records, and newspaper clippings, to determine if there are gender differences in academic performance. Similarly, Facebook are examined to test a hypothesis. Archival research is a relatively inexpensive means of testing a hypothesis because someone else has already collected the basic data.
Of course, the use of existing data has several drawbacks. For one thing, the data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully. The information could be incomplete, or it could have been collected haphazardly Riniolo et al. Most attempts at archival research are hampered by the simple fact that records with the necessary information often do not exist.
In these instances, researchers often turn to another research method: naturalistic observation. For example, a researcher inves- which an investigator simply observes tigating helping behavior might observe the kind of help given to victims in a high- some naturally occurring behavior and crime area of a city.
The important point to remember about naturalistic observation does not make a change in the situation. Andrea Turkalo, a pioneer in the study of forest elephants in their native habitat, relies on naturalistic observation for her research. What are the advantages of this approach? For example, we might find so few naturally occurring instances of helping behavior that we would be unable to draw any conclusions.
Because naturalistic observation prevents researchers from making changes in a situation, they must wait until the appropriate conditions occur. Further- more, if people know they are being watched, they may alter their reactions and produce behavior that is not truly representative.
Survey Research There is no more straightforward way of finding out what people think, feel, and do than asking them directly. For this reason, surveys are an important research method. Researchers investigating helping behavior might conduct a survey by asking peo- ple to complete a questionnaire in which they indicate their reluctance for giving aid to someone. Similarly, researchers interested in learning about sexual practices have carried out surveys to learn which practices are common and which are not and to PsychTech chart changing notions of sexual morality over the last several decades Reece et al.
For one thing, if the sample via the web. But web of people who are surveyed is not representative of the broader population of interest, surveys may have sampling the results of the survey will have little meaning. For instance, if a sample of voters problems, given that not in a town only includes Republicans, it would hardly be useful for predicting the everyone has easy access results of an election in which both Republicans and Democrats are voting.
Conse- to the web, such as people quently, researchers using surveys strive to obtain a random sample of the population living in poverty. Conse- in question, in which every voter in the town has an equal chance of being included quently, web surveys may in the sample receiving the survey Davern, ; Engel et al.
Most racists know they are racists and might not want to admit it. Furthermore, people may not want to admit they engage in behaviors that they feel are somehow abnormal—a problem that plagues surveys of sexual behavior, because people are often reluctant to admit what they really do in private. Finally, in some cases, people may not even be consciously aware of what their true attitudes are or why they hold them. To answer this question, psychologists might conduct a case study.
Module 5 to gain some insight into the personality of the individual or group Gass et al. When case studies are used as a research technique, the goal is to use the insights gained from the study of a few individuals to improve our understanding of people in general.
Sigmund Freud developed his theories through case studies of individual patients. Similarly, case studies of terrorists might help identify others who are prone to violence. The drawback to case studies? If the individuals examined are unique in certain ways, it is impossible to make valid generalizations to a larger population.
Still, they sometimes lead the way to new theories and treatments for psychological disorders. Correlational Research In using the descriptive research methods we have discussed, researchers often wish to determine the relationship between two variables. For example, in a study characteristics that can change, or vary, to determine whether the amount of studying makes a difference in test scores, the in some way.
Module 5 variables would be study time and test scores. A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the value of the other variable will also increase. In contrast, a negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases.
For instance, we might predict that as the number of hours spent studying increases, the number of hours spent partying decreases. More studying is associated with less partying, and less studying is associated with more partying. For instance, we would probably not expect to find a relationship between number of study hours and height.
Lack of a relationship would be indicated by a correlation close to 0. When two variables are strongly correlated with each other, we are tempted to Study Alert assume that one variable causes the other. Although this is not a bad guess, it remains just a guess—because finding that key principle.
The strong correlation suggests that knowing how much a person studies can help us predict how that person will do on a test, but it does not mean that the studying causes the test performance.
Instead, for instance, people who are more inter- ested in the subject matter might study more than do those who are less interested, and so the amount of interest, not the number of hours spent studying, would predict test performance.
The mere fact that two variables occur together does not mean that one causes the other. Similarly, suppose you learned that the number of houses of worship in a large sample of cities was positively correlated with the number of people arrested, mean- ing that the more houses of worship, the more arrests there were in a city.
Does this mean that the presence of more houses of worship caused the greater number of arrests? Almost surely not, of course. In this case, the underlying cause is proba- bly the size of the city: in bigger cities, there are both more houses of worship and more arrests.
One more example illustrates the critical point that correlations tell us nothing about cause and effect but only provide a measure of the strength of a relationship between two variables. We might find that children who watch a lot of television programs featuring high levels of aggression are likely to demonstrate a relatively high degree of aggressive behavior and that those who watch few television shows that portray aggression are apt to exhibit a relatively low degree of such behavior see Figure 1.
But we cannot say that the aggression is caused by the TV viewing, because many other explanations are possible. For instance, it could be that children who have an unusually high level of energy seek out programs with aggressive content and are more aggressive.
Can we con- sion. Also, people who are already highly aggressive might choose to watch shows with clude that the observations of violence a high aggressive content because they are aggressive. Clearly, then, any number of cause aggression? For example, a choosing to watch shows with aggressive content a could produce aggression; or b being a highly aggressive person might cause Choosing to watch one to choose to watch televised aggres- High viewer television programs sion; or c having a high energy level aggression with high aggressive might cause a person to both choose to content watch aggressive shows and to act aggressively.
Correlational findings, then, b do not permit us to determine causality. Can you think of a way to study the effects High viewer of televised aggression on aggressive aggression behavior that is not correlational?
Unusually high energy level Choosing to watch television programs c with high aggressive content. The inability of correlational research to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships is a crucial drawback to its use. There is, however, an alternative technique that does establish causality: the experiment. Experimental Research Carrying out experiments is the only way psychologists can establish cause-and-effect relationships. Module 5 The change that the researcher deliberately makes in an experiment is called the experimental manipulation.
Module 5 begins with the development of one or more hypotheses for the experiment to test. They then designed an experiment to test this hypothesis. Their first step was to formulate an operational definition of the hypothesis by conceptualizing it in a way that could be tested. However, the manipulation cannot be viewed by itself, in isolation; if a cause-and-effect relationship is to be established, the effects of the manipulation must be compared with the effects of no manipulation or a different kind of manipulation.
One group will receive some special treatment—the manipulation implemented mented by the experimenter. Module 5 by the experimenter—and another group will receive either no treatment or a differ- ent treatment. Module 5 with another group. Module 5 ulation produced the results observed in the experiment. For example, consider a medical researcher who thinks he has invented a medicine that cures the common cold.
To test his claim, he gives the medicine one day to a group of 20 people who have colds and finds that 10 days later all of them are cured. Not so fast. An observer viewing this flawed study might reasonably argue that the people would have gotten better even without the medicine. Only if there is a significant difference between experimental and control groups can the effectiveness of the medicine be assessed. Through the use of control groups, then, researchers can isolate specific causes for their findings—and draw cause-and-effect inferences.
To do this, they decided to create a false emer- gency situation that would appear to require the aid of a bystander. As their experimental manipulation, they decided to vary the number of bystanders present. They could have had just one experimental group with, say, two people present, and a control group for comparison purposes with just one person present.
The independent variable is the condition that is manipulated by an experimenter. You can think of the independent variable Module 5 as being independent of the actions of those taking part in an experiment; it is con- trolled by the experimenter. The next step was to decide how they were going to determine the effect that varying the number of bystanders had on behavior of those in the experiment.
The dependent variable is the vari- that is measured in an experiment. It is able that is measured in a study. Module 5 part in the experiment.
But the investigators also wanted a more precise analysis of helping behavior. Consequently, they also measured the amount of time it took for a participant to provide help. The independent variable, manipulated by them, was the number of bystanders present in an emergency situation. The dependent variable was the measure of whether bystand- ers in each of the groups provided help and the amount of time it took them to do so.
Consequently, like all experiments, this one had both an independent variable and a dependent variable. All true experiments in psychology fit this straightforward model.
The significance of this step becomes clear when we examine various alternative Study Alert procedures. For example, the experimenters might have assigned just males to the group To remember the difference with two bystanders, just females to the group with three bystanders, and both males between dependent and and females to the group with six bystanders.
If they had done this, however, any independent variables, recall that differences they found in helping behavior could not be attributed with any certainty a hypothesis predicts how a solely to group size, because the differences might just as well have been due to the dependent variable depends on composition of the group.
A more reasonable procedure would be to ensure that each the manipulation of the indepen- group had the same composition in terms of gender; then the researchers would be dent variable.
Participants in each of the experimental groups ought to be comparable, and it is easy enough to create groups that are similar in terms of gender. The problem becomes a bit more tricky, though, when we consider other participant characteristics.
How can we ensure that participants in each experimental group will be equally intelligent, extroverted, cooperative, and so forth, when the list of characteristics—any one of which could be important—is potentially endless? The advantage of this technique is that and chance alone. Module 5 there is an equal chance that participant characteristics will be distributed across the various groups. When a researcher uses random assignment—which in practice is usually carried out using computer-generated random numbers—chances are that each of the groups will have approximately the same proportion of intelligent people, cooperative people, extroverted people, males and females, and so on.
Figure 2 provides another example of an experiment. Only if each of these elements is present can a research study be considered a true experiment in which cause-and-effect relationships can be determined.
Group 1: Treatment group. Receive-drug condition Group 2: Control group. The participants in the experiment were monkeys who were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Monkeys assigned to the treatment group were given propranolol, hypothesized to prevent heart disease, whereas those in the control group were not given the drug.
Administration of the drugs, then, was the independent variable. These measures constituted the dependent variable. The results? As hypothesized, monkeys who received the drug showed lower heart rates and fewer symptoms of heart disease than those who did not. The discussion was to be held over an intercom, supposedly to avoid the potential embarrassment of face-to-face contact.
Chatting about personal problems was not, of course, the true purpose of the experi- ment, but telling the participants that it was provided a way of keeping their expec- tations from biasing their behavior.
Consider how they would have been affected if they had been told that their helping behavior in emergencies was being tested. The experimenters could never have gotten an accurate assessment of what the participants would actually do in an emergency.
By definition, emergencies are rarely announced in advance. The sizes of the discussion groups were two, three, and six people, which consti- tuted the manipulation of the independent variable of group size. Participants were randomly assigned to these groups upon their arrival at the laboratory.
Each group included one trained confederate of the experimenters. A confederate is an actor employed by a researcher who participates in a psychological experiment, pretending to be a participant.
The researcher trains the confederate to act in a particular way during the experiment. The confederate then called confirmed their hypotheses. Module 5 for help. As predicted by the hypothesis, the size of the group 60 helping had a significant effect on whether a participant provided help.
Because these results are straightforward, it seems clear 30 that the experiment confirmed the original hypothesis.
A significant outcome indicates that the findings are 2 3 6 statistically meaningful, making it possible for researchers to Size of group feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses. Thus the research- One important question about the ers clearly established that the bystander bystander effect is its generalizability—that effect does occur even in children as young is, how widespread is it?
Does it happen in as five. In a clever twist, countries? Does it happen whether the the researchers added a third condition. Researchers answer condition were coloring with bystanders bullied, do they intervene or does the these questions by studying the phenome- who were seated at school desks just like bystander effect occur? But the other half of the partici- effect in children, researchers examined a who was working on her own art project. There was good rea- The adult then spilled a cup of water all coloring with bystanders who were tempo- son to think they might not exhibit over a table and struggled for 90 seconds to rarily trapped at their own desks by a par- bystander effects, because previous hold it back from spilling off the edges, ini- tition placed in the way by the adult.
Thus research had established that children at tially hinting and then eventually asking they were present but unable to help, and this age are often eager to be helpful, even for someone to help her by bringing her only the participant was able to help.
In when it comes at a cost to themselves. Half of the participants was causing the bystander effect in these children. In all. Consequently, we can say with some confidence that group size caused changes in the degree of helping behavior. Psychologists—like other scientists—require that findings dures, settings, and groups of partici- be replicated, or repeated, sometimes using other procedures, in other settings, with pants, to increase confidence in prior other groups of participants, before full confidence can be placed in the results of any findings.
Module 5 single experiment. Furthermore, a procedure called meta-analysis permits psychologists to combine the results of many separate studies into one overall con- clusion Liu et al. Replication is a critical activity, and many researchers believe that psychologists need to increase the number of studies that are replications of earlier research in order to have greater confidence in their findings.
In addition to replicating experimental results, psychologists need to test the lim- itations of their theories and hypotheses to determine under which specific circum- stances they do and do not apply. It seems unlikely, for instance, that increasing the number of bystanders always results in less helping. In fact, follow-up research shows that bystander intervention is more likely to occur in situations viewed as clear-cut and dangerous, because bystanders are more likely to perceive that the presence of others will provide resources for helping.
In short, it is critical to continue carrying out experiments to understand the conditions in which exceptions to this general rule occur and other circum- stances in which the rule holds Garcia et al.
The two psychologists began with a question of interest, in this case stemming from a real-world incident in which bystanders in an emergency did not offer help. They then formulated an explanation by specifying a theory of diffusion of responsibility, and from that formulated the specific hypothesis that increasing the number of bystanders in an emergency situ- ation would lower the degree of helping behavior. Finally, they carried out research to confirm their hypothesis, and they eventually communicated their findings by pub- lishing their results.
In naturalistic observation, the investigator variable and observing changes in the other variable. In survey research, people are pared to assess cause-and-effect relationships. The group asked a series of questions about their behavior, receiving the treatment the special procedure devised thoughts, or attitudes. The variable that they measure and performance are negatively correlated. Therefore, high expect to change as a result of manipulation of the in- anxiety must cause low performance.
A psychologist wants to study the effect of attractiveness randomly to treatment conditions, so that participant on willingness to help a person with a math problem. The group in an experiment that receives no treatment is research findings are significant. Match the following forms of research to their definitions: Can you describe how a researcher might use naturalistic observation, case studies, and survey research to investigate 1.
What positive and negative features does each 3. Poor performance may cause people to imply causation. Just because two variables are related does not mean 1. Correlation does not 2. Match each of the following research methods with its primary disadvantage: 1. The researcher may not be able 2.
The data may not exist or may be unusable. People may lie in order to present a good image.
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